![]() First, the conviction predominated among the colonial masters that a geographic coexistence of different races should be rejected for eugenic reasons. The dominant ideology of racism significantly influenced the day-to-day relations between the German and Chinese populations in two ways. The "model colony" ( Musterkolonie) needed to flaunt technological progress and liberality. The intention of the colonial authorities was to realize and implement from the drawing board an exemplary city layout that was clear, clean, and hygienic. Qingdao’s architectural design attests to the efforts that were made to develop a specific German colonial style. The new upper class from Germany naturally required that German-style villas ought to be constructed as well. Public institutions such as banks, consulates, and schools were also built. A complete German system of administration was established. It was then rebuilt according to German standards. In 1898, Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany (1859-1941) declared the port city of Qingdao a German colony. The military occupation of the Bay of Jiaozhou (Kiautschou) in 1897 laid its foundation. Germany’s ambitious plan to establish a model German colony in China was also part of the struggle of industrial countries to establish economic spheres of influence in areas of the globe outside of Europe. Qingdao under German Rule and the Origins of the Shandong Question ↑ ![]() The Anglo-Japanese alliance made it possible for Japan to conduct an expansionist policy vis-à-vis China, which chiefly focused on the natural resources in Manchuria. It sought to cooperate with China, while distancing itself from the major imperialist powers. Finally, there was the USA, which pursued an open-door policy. Next, there was Germany, whose social order was held aloft as a model for China in the final years of the Qing dynasty. There was the ongoing alliance (ratified in 1902) between Japan and England, whose terms further involved France and Russia. On the eve of the First World War, several foreign powers pursued their interests in China. By themselves, the overthrow of the monarchy in 1911 and Sun Yatsen’s (1866-1925) proclamation of the republic were unable to solve any of China’s pressing internal and external problems.Ĭhina, furthermore, became involved in the world war as a country that was still informally dominated from abroad. Among Chinese intellectuals and the political leadership a consciousness of crisis predominated. The political and economic expansion of the great powers revealed the fundamental weakness of the Qing Empire (1644-1911). Following the suppression of the Boxer Rebellions in 1900/1901, China was not only forced to pay additional high reparations, but had to accept the capital’s brief occupation and the presence of foreign troops. The war China lost against Japan (1895) compelled it to pay high reparations and to cede large territories such as Taiwan. The forced opening of China through the Opium Wars (18), the establishment of foreign spheres of influence in prosperous Chinese provinces, the surrendering of colonial bases (Hong Kong, Qingdao, Port Arthur) and extraterritorial foreign settlements and concessions (Shanghai, Hankou, Tianjin) were violently pushed through despite Chinese resistance. Beginning in 1840, the increased rivalry between the great powers in the struggle over spheres of influence and strongholds in Asia brought China onto the stage of European power politics. China's involvement in the First World War is essentially a long-term consequence of the expansionist policy of European imperialism. The Chinese response to the First World War has a history that goes back to the so-called long 19 th century. The direct and indirect consequences of the war fundamentally changed both China's position in international politics as well as its domestic political and social conditions.Ĭhinese Foreign Policy and the Great War ↑ Although China was hardly involved in the conflict militarily and diplomatically, the First World War nonetheless represents a major turning point for the country. To work out the significance of the Great War for China, a broader historiographical approach is needed that above all takes into account the domestic political, social, and cultural contexts, in addition to the diplomatic and military developments. ![]() The First World War was a global war, but its greatest impact concerned the internal politics and the social order of the participating states.
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